This English Grammar is prepared by Yagya Kumar Niraula especially for the students of grade 9 and 10 studying in Sunbarshi Secondary School, Ratuwamai-5, Morang, Nepal. Any student studying anywhere else at any level/grade can also be benefited. This English Grammar includes : Articles,Transformation, Question Tags,Conditional Sentences,Prepositions,Reported Speech, Causative Verbs, Relative Clauses, Concord, Tense and Voice.
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Articles
Among 'a', 'an' and 'the', 'a/an' are called the indefinite articles and 'the' is known as definite article.
Use of 'A/An':
1. 'A' or 'An' is used with a singular countable noun. Like:
a box, an apple
a ball, an orange
a hotel, an inkpot
* In the sense of one: Robin bought a new dress.
* With jobs or permissions: Aman is an engineer.
* In such + singular nouns: I want such a mobile.
* With singular exclamations: What a boring event !
* To mean each or every: Rita visits her son once a week.
2. 'A' is used with a noun that starts with a consonant sound and 'an' is used with a noun that starts with a vowel sound. e.g.:
a bat, an aeroplane
a tiffin, an encounter
a chain, an illusion
a mobile, an orange
a cup, an umbrella
In most cases, the letter e, o, u are pronounced as vowels but sometimes they act as consonants. e.g.:
an essay, a eucalyptus
an ox, a one eyed man
an urgent matter, a unicorn
3. An abbreviation whose first letter has a vowel sound comes with 'an' and the abbreviation whose first letter has consonant sound comes with 'a'. e.g.:
an SLC candidate, a SAT score
an MLA ticket, a WHO officer
an NTC network, a BBC channel.
4. A singular countable noun that starts with the 'h' letter comes with 'a' when it is pronounced; but it comes with 'an' when it is silent. e.g.:
an hour (h is silent)
a hamburger (h is pronounced)
an heiress (h is silent)
a house (h is pronounced)
an honest person (h is silent )
a half-yearly meeting (h is pronounced)
5. 'A' is used with units of uncountable nouns. e.g.:
a bottle of oil, a cup of tea
a glass of milk, a plate of rice
6. 'A' is used with some phrases. e.g.:
a few friends, a million
a metre, a dozen
7. 'A' is used with some expressions like:
have a drink
at a glance
get a fever
at a loss
in a hurry
8. Use 'a/an' when it is used as a definite idea or comes with adjectives. eg:
The website provides an all round information.
9. Use 'a/an' if an adjective comes before the meal. eg:
Rita had a light breakfast in the morning.
Use of 'The':
1. 'The' is used with superlatives and with other words like 'the same', 'the only' which implies that there is only one or which makes something unique. Example:
Superlatives: Mt. Everest is the highest peak in the world.
the only : Tina is the only person who understands me better than myself.
the same: My shoes and bag are of the same color.
2. 'The' should always be used with the names of following nouns.
Religious books: the Bible, the Geeta, the Koran............
Newspapers: the Kantipur, the Rising Nepal...........
Famous ships: the Titanic, the Queen Marry.............
Political parties: the Nepali Congress, the Communist....
Titles: the Prime Minister, the President..............
Deserts and canals: the Sahara, the Gobi, the Panama canal.
Gulfs and peninsulas: the Black Forest, the Persian Gulf........
Rivers and seas: the Karnali, the Nile, the Rhine.............
Oceans and islands: the Atlantic ocean, the Pacific ocean......
Plural names of countries: the Netherlands, the United States
Geographical names: the United Kingdom, the United States of America........
Nationality adjectives: the English, the French, the American...........
Plural names of families: the Gurungs, the Ranas, the Niraulas..............
Period of history: the Stone age, the Modern Age...............
Historical events: the Independence day, the Martyrs day...........
Famous hotels: the Yak and Yeti, the Annapurna............
Museums and libraries: the National museum, the American Library......
Historical buildings: the Taj Mahal, the Pashupati Nath Temple........
Historical monuments: the Statue of Liberty, the Little Mermaid.....
Theatres and clubs: the Jay Nepal, the Kumari...........
Geoographical areas (directions): the West, the East..........
Celestial bodies: the Sun, the Moon, the Universe...........
Mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Alps............
3. Use 'the' with musical instruments when we talk about them in many senses.
Example:
Can you play the piano?
My friend is playing the guitar.
4. Use 'the' with parts of the body when we talk about their measurement, anatomy and function. Example:
The lung purifies the blood.
The heart sends blood around the body.
5. Use 'the' with gerund (ing) forms and abstract nouns in the structure. Example:
The main aim of our website is to develop the education system.
The making of this video was not much expensive.
6. Use 'the' when proper noun is treated as a common noun by comparision. Example:
Aman is the Leonardo Da Vinci of this class.
Ram is the Shakespeare of this class.
(Note: It is known as Metaphor Figures of Speech.)
7. Use 'the' when uncountable noun is definite. Example:
The juice in the glass is sugar-free.
The milk in the fridge is fresh.
8. Use 'the' with the part of the body when it is referred to the person in the object position. Example:
The ball hit the old lady in the head.
Kabir gave him a blow on the face.
Omission of Articles:
1. Do not use articles with proper nouns in a general sense. e.g.:
He went to Pokhara last week.
2. Do not use articles with abstract nouns in a general sense. e.g.:
Education is the birthright of everyone.
3. Do not use articles with meals. e.g.:
We take breakfast at home.
4. Do not use articles with uncountable nouns. e.g.:
He likes mango juice.
5. Do not use articles if they are used in the sentence for the primary purpose. e.g.:
They sell clothes in the showroom.
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Transformation
Transformation is changing the form of a sentence without changing its meaning. A brief direction about doing transformation is given below.
Sentences in the form of Positive, Negative and Interrogative:
He sings a song. (Positive )
He does not sing a song. (Negative)
Does he sing a song? (Interrogative)
They play football. (Positive )
They do not play football. (Negative)
Do they play football? (Interrogative)
Anu wrote some poems. (Positive )
Anu did not write any poems. (Negative)
Did Anu write some poems? (Interrogative)
He can drive a bus. (Positive )
He cannot drive a bus. (Negative)
Can he drive a bus? (Interrogative)
Note:
If there is an auxiliary verb in a sentence, do not change the form of a main verb while transforming a sentence.
If there is not an auxiliary verb in a sentence, always change the forms of verb when we add or remove does/do/did to transform sentence.
Structure for sentences with auxiliary verb:
Sub+ aux+ verb+.................(positive) -
He should inform to the police
Sub+ aux+ not+ verb+........(negative) -
He should not inform to the police
Sub+ sub+ verb+..................?(interrogative) -
Should he inform to the police?
Structure for sentences without auxiliary verb:
Sub+ main verb+.................. (positive)
He eats rice.
They eat rice.
She ate rice.
Sub+ does/do/did/+ not+V1 .......... (negative)
He does not eat rice.
They do not eat rice.
She did not eat rice.
Does/Do/Did+sub+V1............? (interrogative)
Does he eat rice?
Do they eat rice?
Did she eat rice?
Note:
Use 'do not' or 'do' if there is a V1.
Use 'does not' or 'does' if there is a V5.
Use 'did not' or 'did' if there is a V2.
General Rules:
1. We usually change positive imperatives into negative as follows:
Verb+...........
Open the door. (positive)
Do not+verb+.......
Do not open the door. (negative)
Let+ object+ verb+.....
Let him do it. (positive)
Let+ object+not+ verb+.....
Let him not do it. (negative)
2. These words change while transforming sentences.
some - any
I have some money. (positive)
I do not have any money. (negative)
Do I have any money? (interrogative)
and so- and neither
He dances and so do I. (positive)
He does not dance and neither do I. (negative)
already - yet
I have already done it. (positive)
I have not done it yet. (negative)
(Note: Look at the position of 'already' and 'yet' in the sentences above.)
too- either
He went, too. (positive)
He did not go either. (negative)
a lot of- much/many
I have a lot of books. (positive)
I do not have many books. (negative)
I have a lot of money. (positive)
I do not have much money. (negative)
(Note: Use 'many' with countable nouns and 'much' with uncountable nouns.)
3. Only changing the following words, we can change the sentences into negative.
always - never
She always dances. (positive)
She never dances. (negative)
either...or - neither...nor
Either Ram or Hari has done it. (positive)
Neither Ram nor Hari has done it. (negative)
some - no
Somebody is coming. (positive)
Nobody is coming. (negative)
some of/any of- none of
Some of them look happy. (positive)
None of them look happy. (negative)
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Question Tags
Question tags are mini questions added to the end of statements or imperatives to confirm information.
The format of a question tag is:
Statement+comma(,)+tag question+ question mark (?)
General Rules:
If the statement is positive, use negative tag.
If the statement is negative, use positive tag.
The statements and the question tags take the same tenses.
Always use the contracted forms (never use the full forms) in the tag. Example:
Bob helped you a lot, didn't he?
You will help me tomorrow, won't you?
Auxiliary Verbs of Tags:
1. Use the auxiliary of the statement as the auxiliary of the tag.Contracted forms should be used. e.g.:
He didn't invite you, did he?
2. If there are two or more than two auxiliary verbs in the statement, use the first auxiliary verb to form tag questions. Example:
He will have a new bike, won't he?
She will have been waiting for you, won't she?
3. If there is no auxiliary verb in the sentences, we use 'do' verbs (except 'be' verbs) to form tag questions. In case of 'be' verb, we use the same verb. Example:
She sings well, doesn't she?
He ate a mango, didn't he?
We play football, don't we?
Ram is a teacher, isn't he?
He is not a doctor, is he?
They are farmers, aren't they?
4. Singular auxiliary verbs (is, was, has, does) are changed to plural auxiliary verbs (are, were, have, do) to form tags if the subjects of the statements are somebody, someone, nobody, noone etc. In that case, use the pronoun 'they' in the tag. Example :
Somebody helps me, don't they?
Nobody is coming, are they?
Subject of Tags:
1. Use the subject pronouns of the statements as the subjects of tags. Example:
He sings well, doesn't he?
2. If there are nouns or two pronouns in the subject, replace them with single pronouns. Example:
Hari eats rice, does't he?
Sita dances well, doesn't she?
Ram and Sita are friends, aren't they?
He and I enjoy singing, don't we?
Which subject of statement becomes what as the subject of tag question:
I = I
I love singing, don't I?
.....and I = We
Shital and I enjoy singing, don't we?
You and...... = you
You and Anil can do it, can't you?
Singular male = he
Amit is an engineer, isn't he?
Singular female = she
Sujata is a nurse, isn't she?
This/That....., uncountable noun, Singular thing/Animal and Something/Nothing/Everything = it
Example:
This is my book, isn't it?
Orange juice is tasty, isn't it?
Dog is our favourite animal, isn't it?
Something was missing, wasn't it?
These/Those, Plural nouns, Somebody/Everybody/Nobody, Somone/Everyone........
= they
Example:
These answers are correct, aren't they?
Ram and Hari dance, don't they?
Somebody calls me up, don't they?
Everyone is happy, aren't they?
There = there
Example:
There is a book on the desk, isn't there?
One = one
Example:
One can make mistakes, can't one?
Question Tags with Imperatives
1. Order and command sentences whether they are positive or negative are always followed by "will you".
Example:
Don't open the windows, will you?
Help your dad in the garage, will you?
2. "Let's" (either in positive or in negative form) is followed by "shall we".
Example:
Let's start homework now, shall we?
Let's not go shopping, shall we?
3. "Let" (either in positive or in negative form) is followed by "will you".
Example:
Let him go, will you?
Let him not go, will you?
4. AND NEVER FORGET :
The question tag "am I not/amn't I" is totally incorrect; always say: "aren't I".
Example:
I am late, aren't I? (but not "amn't I")
BUT (look at the negative form) :
I am not a doctor, am I? (but not "are I")
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Conditionals
What are conditionals in English grammar? Sometimes we call them 'if clauses'. They describe the result of something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but didn't (in the past). They are made using different English verb tenses.
There are four kinds of conditionals:
1. The Zero Conditional:
We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if clause' and one in the 'main clause'):
If + present simple, .... present simple
This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main cluase.
The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning.
For example:
If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.
When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.
(It is always true, there can't be a different result sometimes).
If I eat peanuts, I am sick.
(This is true only for me, may be, not for everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)
Here are some more examples:
If people eat too much, they get fat.
f you touch a fire, you get burned.
People die if they don't eat .
You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen.
Snakes bite if they are scared.
If babies are hungry, they cry.
2. The First Conditional:
The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:
if+present simple, ... will + infinitive
It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.
If it rains , I won't go to the park.
If I study today, I 'll go to the party tonight.
If I have enough money, I 'll buy some new shoes.
She'll be late if the train is delayed.
She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
If I see her, I'll tell her.
First vs. Zero Conditional:
The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional describes what happens ingeneral .
For example (zero conditional):
If you sit in the sun, you get burned. (here I'm talking about every time a person sits in the sun, the burning is a natural consequence of the sitting.)
But (first conditional):
If you sit in the sun, you'll get burned. (here I'm talking about what will happentoday, another day might be different.)
First vs. Second Conditional:
The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the future, whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think will really happen. It's subjective; it depends on my point of view.
For example (first conditional):
If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam.
(I think it's possible she will study harder and so she'll pass.)
But (second conditional):
If she studied harder, she would pass the exam. (I think that she won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass.)
3. The Second Conditional:
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
if+ past simple, ...would/could/might + infinitive
(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).
It has two uses:
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. May be I'm imagining some dream for example.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.
(I probably won't win the lottery)
If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
She would pass the exam if she ever studied .
(She never studies, so this won't happen.)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:
If I had his number, I would call him.
(I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me to call him).
If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
How is this different from the first conditional?
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot more unlikely.
For example (second conditional):
If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool.
(I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real.)
But (first conditional):
If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
(It's much more likely that l'll have enough money to buy some shoes.)
4. The Third Conditional :
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would/could/might have' and the past participle in the second part of the sentence:
if+past perfect, ...would/could/might +have+past participle
It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.
If she had studied, she would have passed the exam. (but,really we know she didn't study and so she didn't pass)
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick. (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick)
If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane.
She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier.
She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university.
He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine.
Various Structures of Conditional sentences:
Positive Conditions:
I will do it if you help me.
If you like it , you may buy it.
Negative conditions:
If you don't work hard, you will fail the exam.
If you don't water flowers, they die.
Interrogative conditions:
What happens to your laptop if you left it in sleeping mode for the whole day?
What will you do if he rejects your idea?
Had+subject+past participle:
Had he come in time, he would have caught the bus.
Had I saved my money, I would have bought a dress.
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Preposition
A preposition is a word which shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and some other words in a sentence. It is placed before the noun or the pronoun (or any other word acting like a noun )
Prepositions of Time
A number of prepositions may be used to denote time:
on Monday, before night, during the night, till tomorrow, after lunch.
1. At, on, in
(a) 'At' usually denotes a definite point of time but can also be used for indefinite periods:
at 3 o'clock, at midnight
(b) 'On' is used with days and dates:
on Monday, on 5th December
(c) 'In' is used with parts of the day, month, year, season:
in the morning, in winter
2. By
It denotes the latest time at which an action will be over:
The show will be over by 6 p.m.
3. From
It denotes the starting point of an action. It is almost always used with to or till/until:
The examination will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m.
Prepositions of Position
1. At, in
(a) 'At' has the idea of an exact point; it is used with villages, small towns. 'In' has the idea of a larger area and is used while speaking of bigger towns, states, countries:
at Thamel, in Kathmandu, at Dhanusha, in England
(b) 'At' conveys the idea of general neighborhood. 'In' conveys the idea of something contained:
Please sit at the table when you eat.
I shall meet you at Hotel Hyatt.
The jam bottle is in the refrigerator.
2. Between, among
'Between' is used with two persons or things. 'Among' is used with more than two:
A small table was lying between the two chairs.
The hare hid among the bushes.
3. On, upon
Both 'on' and 'upon' can be used while speaking of things at rest; 'upon' is used with things in motion:
My bag is on/upon the table.
4. Above, over
Both 'above' and 'over' mean higher than:
The flags waved over our heads.
The flags waved above our heads.
5. Below, under
Both 'below' and 'under' mean lower than. Sometimes we can use either of them. But 'under' also means vertically below.
The traveller was resting under a tree.
She put the book under her pillow.
There was a beautiful lake below us in the valley.
Prepositions of direction (towards): to, toward, into, at, for, against
1. 'To' has the sense of destination, 'towards' of direction:
We went to the school. (reached the school)
He went towards the school. ( in the direction of the school)
2. 'Into' denotes movement towards the interior of something:
The dog jumped into the pond.
3. 'At' has the idea of hitting:
She threw the stone at the dog.
4. 'For' suggests the beginning of a movement:
The workers left for the factory.
5. 'Against' shows pressure or contact:
He threw the bag against the wall.
Prepositions of direction (from): from, off, out of
1. 'From' is used with the point of departure:
She has already gone from the office.
2. 'Off' shows separation. It is used in the sense of from the surface of, down from:
He fell off the cycle.
3. 'Out of' is the opposite of 'into'. It means from the interior of:
The bird flew out of the cage.
Correct use of certain prepositions
1. By, with
'By' is used to express the agent or doer of an action; 'with' relates to the instrument with which the action is done:
The leopard was beaten by the villagers with a stick.
2. After, in
'After' is used to denote some period of time in the past; 'in' is used to show some period of time in the future:
She came back home after an hour.
We will come back home in an hour.
3. Beside, besides
'Beside' means by the side of; 'besides' means in addition to:
Please put this bag beside the box.
Besides giving me books, she gave me her notes.
4. On time, in time
On time = at the arranged time; not before, not after
In time = not late, with a comfortable margin:
We reached the station in time for the train.
The train started on time.
Prepositions used in idioms and phrases:
At:
not at all: not in any way
at any rate: whatever happens
at this point: at this place; at this moment
at rest: not moving
In:
in addition to: as well as
in advance: before
in tune: at the correct pitch
in a minute: soon
On:
on account of: because of
on the average: usually; normally
on fire: burning
on time: at the correct time
By:
by heart: from memory
by oneself: alone
by the way: incidentally
little by little: gradually
For:
for fun: for the sake of enjoyment
for sure: definitely
for sale: intended to be sold
for now: temporarily
Out of:
out of the blue: unexpectedly
out of danger: safe
out of trouble: not in trouble
out of hand: not under control
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Direct and Indirect Speech/Narration (Reported Speech)
There are two types of speeches: direct speech/narration and indirect speech/narration or reported speech. If we quote the actual words of the speaker, it is called the direct speech and if we report what the speaker says without giving their exact words, it is called indirect speech.
Direct speech: Ram said to Sita,"What are you doing?
"Indirect speech: Ram asked Sita what she was doing.
Direct speech: Aman said to me,"I will call you back this afternoon."
Indirect speech: Aman told me that he would call me back that afternoon.
Punctuation and word order
1. We can use single inverted commas (‘ ’) or double inverted commas (" ") with suitable saying verbs to quote the actual words spoken by the speaker. The first letter of the reported sentence is always capital.
She said, "I'm leaving for home today."
2. If the 'speaker+reporting verb' comes before the reported sentence, we generally put a comma before inverted commas.
She said," Can I use your diary?"
3. The speaker can come before and after the reported sentence.
"During Dashain we bought a new car," Sumita said.
4. The speaker can come before and after the reporting verb if it is a noun. But, if the speaker is a pronoun, it normally comes before the reporting verb.
"I am getting late," said Aman.
"I am getting late," Aman said.
"Where are you from?" she asked.
5. If the speaker interrupts the reported sentence, the punctuation system is:
" Of course," said Manju," We will have the meeting."
Change in Tenses
1. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verb in the reported speech must be changed to one of the four forms of the past tense.
She said, "She likes dancing."
She said that she liked dancing.
2. In some cases, the simple past tense became unchanged.
She said," Columbus discovered America in 1492."
She said that Columbus discovered America in 1492.
3. The following changes need to be made to the modal auxiliary verbs:
shall/will+ V1- should/would + V1
will have - would have
would/could/might/ought + V1- no change
must (necessity) - had to
shall have - should have
must (duty/law/truth) - no change
may/can+ V1- might/could + V1
Changes in Time and Place References:
Places:
here - there
this - that
these - those
come - go
Time:
now - then
today - that day
tonight - that night
this week - that week
tomorrow - the following day/the next day
yesterday - the previous day
Detailed Study of Direct and Indirect Speech
You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways:
- by repeating the words spoken (direct speech),
- by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).
Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between inverted commas ("....") and there is no change inthese words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation.
Examples:
She says "What time will you be home?"
She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! "
"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."
Indirect/Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say','tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him."
She said that she had seen him .
'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy.
She told him she was happy.
'Say' and 'tell':
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.
'Talk' and 'speak' are used:
- to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.She was speaking on the telephone.
- with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.
Reported Speech
Tense Changes While Using Reported Speech
Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in timefrom the tense in direct speech:
She said, "I am tired."
She said that she was tired.
The changes are shown below:
Examples:
Simple present - Simple past
"I always drink coffee", she said.
She said that she always drank coffee.
Present continuous - Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained.
He explained that he was reading a book.
Simple past - Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.
He said that Bill had arrived onSaturday.
Present perfect - Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me.
He told me that he had been to Spain.
Past perfect - Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he explained.
He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Present perfect continuous - Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have been waiting for hours".
They complained that they had been waiting for hours.
Past continuous - Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they told me.
They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future - Present conditional
"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said.
He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous - Conditional continuous
She said, " I'll be using the car next Friday".
She said that she would be using the car next Friday.
NOTE:
1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement was about something that is still true, e.g.
He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.
2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech:
might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g.
We explained that it could bedifficult to find our house.
She said that she might bring a friend to the party.
Time/place references change when using reported speech
Example:
"I will see you here tomorrow ", she said.
She said that she would see me there the next day.
The most common of these changes are shown below:
Examples:
Today - that day
"I saw him today", she said.
She said that she had seen him that day.
Yesterday - the day before
"I saw him yesterday ", she said.
She said that she had seen him the day before .
The day before yesterday - two days before
"I met her the day before yesterday ", he said.
He said that he had met her two days before .
Tomorrow - the next/following day
"I'll see you tomorrow ", he said.
He said that he would see me the next day.
The day after tomorrow - in two days time/ two days later
"We'll come the day after tomorrow ,"they said.
They said that they would come in two days time/ two days later.
Next week/month/year - the following week/month/year
"I have an appointment next week ", she said.
She said that she had an appointment the following week .
Last week/month/year - the previous/week/month/year
"I was on holiday last week ," he told us.
He told us that he had been on holiday the previous week .
ago - before
"I saw her a week ago ," he said.
He said he had seen her a week before .
this (for time) - that
"I'm getting a new car this week," she said.
She said she was getting a new car thatweek.
this/that (adjectives) - the
"Do you like this shirt?," he asked.
He asked if I liked the shirt.
here - there
He said, "I live here."
He told me he lived there .
Other changes:
In general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural, except when the speaker reports his own words:
Example:
He said, "I like your new car."
He told her that he liked her new car.
I said, "I'm going to my friend's house."
I said that I was going to my friend's house.
QUESTION FORMS:
Examples:
1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did' :
"Where does Peter live?"
She asked him where Peter lived .
2. Yes/No questions :
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if /whether + clause:
"Do you speak English?"
He asked me if I spoke English .
"Are you British or American?"
He asked me whether I was British or American.
"Is it raining?"
She asked if it was raining .
"Have you got a computer?"
He wanted to know whether I had a computer.
"Can you type?"
She asked if I could type .
"Did you come by train?"
He enquired whether I had come by train .
"Have you been to Bristol before?"
She asked if I had been to Bristol before .
3. Question words:
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change.
"What is your name?" he asked me.
He asked me what my name was .
"How old is your mother?," he asked.
He asked how old her mother was .
The policman said to the boy, "Where do you live?"
The policeman asked the boy where he lived .
"What time does the train arrive?," she asked.
She asked what time the train arrived .
"When can we have dinner?," she asked.
She asked when they could have dinner.
Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?"
Peter asked the John why he was so late.
Orders, Requests, Suggestions:
1. When we want to report an order or request,we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-clause.
Examples:
He told me to go away.
The pattern is verb+indirect object+ to-clause.
(The indirect object is the person spoken to.)
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command,order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, forbid .
Examples:
The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking."
The doctor told me to stop smoking .
"Get out of the car," said the policeman.
The policeman ordered him to get out of the car .
"Could you please be quiet," she said.
She asked me to be quiet .
The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move."
The man with the gun warned us not to move.
2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask+for +object :
Examples:
"Can I have an apple?", she asked.
She asked for an apple.
"Can I have the newspaper, please?"
He asked for the newspaper .
"May I have a glass of water?" he said.
He asked for a glass of water.
"Sugar, please."
She asked for the sugar .
"Could I have three kilos of onions?"
He asked for three kilos of onions .
3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause.'That' and 'should' are optional in these clauses:
She said, "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?"
She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the car.
OR
She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car.
Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose .
Examples:
"It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother.
My mother suggested I see the dentist.
The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush".
The dentist recommended that I should use a different toothbrush.
My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting."
My manager proposedthat we examine the budget carefully at the meeting.
"Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said.
She suggested that I sleep overnight at her house.
Hopes, Intentions and Promises
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
"I'll pay you the money tomorrow."
He promised to pay me the money the next day.
He promised that he would pay methe money the next day.
Other verbs used in this pattern include:
hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear .
Examples:
"I'll be back by lunchtime."
He promised to be back by lunchtime.
He promised that he would be backby lunchtime.
"We should arrive in London before nightfall."
They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall.
They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.
"Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"
He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
He threatened that he would shootme if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
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Causative Verbs
Causative verbs express an action which is caused to happen.The English verbs 'make', 'have' and 'get' are called causative verbs because they cause something else to happen. These causative verbs can come in any tenses.
Example:
He makes me laugh. (Present)
He made me laugh. (Past)
He will make me laugh. (Future)
He gets me to call a taxi. (Present)
He got me to call a taxi. (Past)
He will get me to call a taxi. (Future)
He has me call a taxi. (Present)
He had me call a taxi. (Past)
He will have me call a taxi. (Future)
Have something done/Get something done:
Look at the following examples on "have something done/get something done". They all are in the past tense. The structure is:
sub+get/have+the thing to be done+V3+…....
He got his beard shaved by a barber.
He had his beard shaved by a barber.
I got my clothes washed.
I had my house painted.
More detailed study of Causative Verbs:
Uses of causative verbs:
Make:
'Make as a causative verb follows the structure "sub + make + agent + V1 +...." that means to force someone to do something.
Example:
Don't make me shout at him.
The principal made the teachers stay after the school hour.
In the passive structure, the causative verb 'make' comes with 'to + V1.
Example:
The teachers were made to stay after school hour by the principal.
Get:
'Get' as a causative verb follow the structure "sub + get + agent + to + V1 + ......" that means to convince someone to do something.
Example:
The doctors are trying to get people to stop smoking.
We should get people to plant some trees in their surrounding.
Have:
'Have' as a causative verb follows the structure "sub + have + agent + V1+......" that means to give someone the responsibility to do something or to ask someone to do something.
Example:
I had my hair cut in a completely new style.
Get/Have something done
Sometimes 'get someone to do something' or 'get something done' is interchangeable with 'have something done' or 'get something done'. But there is a little difference between these expressions.
1. Have something done:
Shyam had his hair cut last Saturday.
I had my house painted.
2. Get something done:
Rohan got his room cleaned yesterday.
Tarun gets his letter typed neatly.
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Relative Clause
WH-words like where, when, who, which etc are called relative clauses. We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, the text becomes more fluent and we can avoid repeating certain words.There are two types of relative clauses. They are:
Defining clauses
Non-defining clauses
General Rules of Clauses:
A defining relative clause identifies the noun, whereas a non-defining relative clause gives extra information to it.
e.g.: He is the boy who helped the orphan children.
Aman, who works in a hotel, has decided to quit the job.
We put a comma (,) before a non-defining relative clause. If it comes in the middle of the sentence. We put a comma after it as well. We don't put a comma with a defining relative clause.
e.g.: We met a friendly tourist who came from Australia. (no comma)
Yeterday I met Anjali, who told me about her father's business. (comma)
Mr. Koirala, who died in 1985, was a great singer.
We do not use 'that' in non-defining relative clauses. We can use 'whose' and 'where' in non-defining clauses.
e.g.: I invited Ragini, whose brother is a good friend of mine.
Defining relative clauses are often used after 'someone, anyone, everything, some, many, several, all, those, etc'.
e.g.: We met everyone who passed the final exam.
'When' and 'where' are mostly used in non-defining clauses.
e.g.: I will meet you at 2 o'clock, when you have a break at your school.
'When' and 'where' can also be used in non-defining clauses if 'when' is preceded by the words like 'time, day, month, year, occasion, etc.' and where is preceded by the words like 'place, room, street, town, village, etc.'
e.g.: This is the year they should start working.
The place, where they work, is very nice.
'Why' is used in a defining clause after the word 'reason'.
e.g.: This is the reason why these boys are weak.
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Concord (Subject-Verb Agreement)
The basic rule of subject verb agreement is that a singular subject takes a singular verb (is, was, has, does, v5), while a plural subject takes a plural verb (are, were, have, do,v1).
Example:
Nitesh is a tennis player.
He studies in Grade X.
Arun and Bidit are badminton players.
They study in Grade XII.
Rules of Agreement
1. Singular nouns and pronouns that denote one always agree with singular verbs (is, was, has, does, v5).
Example:
Lisa types 50 words a minute.
She is absolutely furious with me.
2. Plural nouns and pronouns that denote more than one always agree with plural verbs (are, were have, do, v1).
Example:
Lisa and Mona type 50 words a minute.
They are absolutely furious with me.
3. The following indefinite pronouns always agree with singular verbs: either, anybody, nobody, someone, other, each, everyone, anything, somebody, neither, no one, everything, everbody, anyone, one, nothing
Example:
Either party has the right to sign the contract.
Anybody who is good at computer typing can apply for this post.
Either Ram or Hari has done it.
Someone has come.
Nothing has been done.
It depends on what one does.
4. However, the following indefinite pronouns always take plural verbs. (both, few, many, several, others)
Example:
Both men were charged of murder.
Both women were Pakistani.
Several books were torn.
5. Subjects with 'each, each of, every, either, either of, neither, neither of, one, one of, etc. are always singular and agree with singular verbs.
Example:
Each and every student has a textbook.
One of them was very sick.
Either of them has done it.
6. Uncountable nouns are always singular and agree with singular verbs (is, was, has, does, v5).
Example:
Water freezes at 32 degreeF.
Coffee was served during the intermission.
Milk is white in colour.
7. Verbal nouns (gerunds and to-infinitives) always agree with singular verbs (is, was, has, does, v5).
Example:
Walking is a healthy exercise.
To walk is healthy.
8. Some adjectives with 'the' occur as the subject and agree with plural verbs.
Example:
The poor are given shelter.
The rich are happy.
9. Arithmetic sums normally agree with singular verbs (is , was, has, does, v5).
Example:
Three plus three equals six.
Ten plus two is twelve.
10. The names and titles of books, countries, hotels, shows, etc. normally agree with singular verbs.
Example:
Great Exoectations was written by Charles Dickens.
Tom and Jerry is a famous cartoon.
11. Plural expressions of distance, money, time, etc. normally agree with singular verbs.
Example:
Ten dollars is high price to pay.
Two kilos of rice costs about two hundred rupees.
12. Words that indicate percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, etc. agree with singular or plural verbs depending on what types of nouns follow them.
Example:
All of the food is gone off.
All the children are physically strong.
13. When nouns are joined by 'not only....but also, apostrophe' the verb often agrees with the number of the noun or ponoun nearest to the verb.
Example:
Not only Riya but also her brothers know the answer.
The boys' school is very far from here.
14. Collective nouns may agree with either singular or plural depending on whether we are thinking of them as a single body or a numbers of individuals.
Example:
The family comes from India.
The family are always quarrelling.
15. Some words that are joined by 'and' and cannot be seperated from each other and often taken together take singular verbs.
Example:
Bread and butter is my favourite food.
Rice and curry is my favourite food.
Slow and steady wins the race.
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Tense
There are three kinds of tense in English. They are Present, Past and Future. Each tense has four branches: Simple, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous.
1. Present Tense
a) Simple Present (sub+v1/v5+ obj)
Note: 'V1' is used for 'I', 'you' and all other plural subjects and 'V5'
is used for all singular subjects.
Simple Present Tense is used:
- to show present affairs, habitual facts, truths, saying and proverbs, works etc.
Example:
Ram plays cricket.
I eat food.
He likes milk.
- for general truths and things that are always true.
Example:
The sun rises in the east.
The earth moves round the sun.
- for habits.
Example:
He smokes everyday.
I brush my teeth twice a day.
- for repeated actions and daily routines.
Example:
I get up early in the morning.
We eat three meals a day.
He leaves school at 4 O'clock.
- to talk about things that are planned for future.
Example:
Our holiday starts on the 26th Ashad.
The plane lands at 6:30 p.m.
b) Present Continuous (sub+is/am/are+v4+obj)
Note: 'Is' is used for singular subjects. 'Am' is used for 'I' and 'are' is used for 'you' and all other plural subjects.
It is used to show progressive or continuous actions, fixed and decided future planning or arrangements. Time indicating words and expressions like 'now, right now, at this time, at this moment, at present, Look !, Listen !' etc. are used with this tense.
Example:
They are playing cricket.
She is planning to visit Pokhara.
Look ! someone is coming.
My favourite movie is starting in a minute.
hat are you doing right now?
I am reading a story book at this moment.
Listen ! someone is knocking at the door.
c) Present Perfect (sub+has/have +v3+obj)
Note: 'Has' is used for singular subjects. 'Have' is used for 'I', 'you' and all other plural subjects.
Present Perfect Tense is used for:
- showing recently finished action with the result in present situation.
Example:
I have cut my finger. (It's bleeding now).
He has taken a bath. (His hair is wet).
He has eaten food. (He is no longer hungry now).
- an action that finished recently (in the recent past).
Example:
I have just finished my dinner.
She has already done it.
- an action that started in the past and is still happening now. (Present Perfect Continuous Tense can also be used for this action).
Example:
I have lived in this village since 2011. (Present Perfect)
I have been living in this village since 2011. (Present Perfect Continuous)
- describing the experiences that we think are interesting.
Example:
I have seen the sea.
I have travelled by train.
I have talked to the king.
_ an action that repeated many times.
Example:
I have visited Kathmandu five times.
d) Present Perfect Continuous (sub+has/have+been+v4+obj)
Note: 'Has been' is used for singular subjects. 'Have been' is used for 'I', 'you' and all other plural subjects.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for:
- an action that started in the past and is still happening now.
Example:
He has been smoking since 2015.
They have been reading since morning.
She has been singing for an hour.
2. Past Tense
a) Simple Past (sub+v2+obj)
Note: 'V2' is used for all (singular and plural) subjects including 'I' and 'you'.
It is used to show past actions and generally used with 'last.....', '.....ago', 'yesterday', 'those days' etc.
Example:
He visited Europe last year.
I played football yesterday.
He died many years ago.
I worked there in 2015.
b) Past Continuous (sub+was/ were+v4+obj)
Note: 'Was' is used for singular subjects including 'I' and 'were' is used for all other plural subjects including 'you'.
It is used to show the actions that were going on in the past.
Example:
They were preparing for their exam.
He was playing with his brothers.
The twins were dancing in the garden.
We were playing football.
She was writing a letter.
c) Past Perfect (sub+had+v3+obj)
Note: 'Had' is used for all subjects including 'I', and 'you'.
It is used to talk about the action that happened before or after another action in the past.
Example:
The bus had crossed the bridge before it fell down.
The bridge fell down after the truck had crossed it.
Before I knew it, she had run out of the door.
Note: The first action is always in the Past Perfect and the second action is in the Simple Past tense.
d) Past Perfect Continuous (sub+ had+been+v4+obj)
Note: 'Had been' is used for all subjects including 'I', and 'you'.
It is used to show the actions that had been going on in the past before another action started.
Example:
I had been reading for two hours.
They had been dancing since morning.
3. Future Tense
a) Simple Future (sub+ shall/will+ v1+obj)
Note: 'Shall' is used for 'I' and 'we' and 'will' is used for all other subjects. 'Will' can also be used for 'I' and 'we'.
It is used to express the actions that take place at a time in the future. 'Tomorrow', 'soon', 'next day/week/month/year', 'tonight' etc. are used in this tense.
Example:
He will visit Bhaktapur tomorrow.
I shall complete my work tonight.
hey will visit us next week.
b) Future Continuous (sub+shall/will+be+v4+obj)
It is used to show the action that will be going on at sometime in the future.
Example:
They will be visiting the zoo tomorrow.
I shall be reading the story next day.
c) Future Perfect (sub+shall/will+ have+v3+obj)
It is used :
- to express the actions that will be completed before a certain action in the future. And it is generally used with ‘by+point of time’.
Example:
We will have used up all the raw materials by 2035.
- to talk about an action that will happen before another action in future. (Here the first action is in Future Perfect and the second action is in Simple Present tense).
Example:
He will have finished his task before we leave the office.
d) Future Perfect Continuous (sub+shall/will+have been+v4+ obj)
It is used to express the actions that will have been going on for a certain time in the future.
Example:
He will have been waiting for you at this time tomorrow.
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Voice
There are two types of voice. They are: Active Voice and Passive Voice.
In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb.
Example:
Cats eat fish.
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb.
Example:
Fish are eaten by cats.
While changing active voice sentences into passive voice, note the following:
- The object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice.
- The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) and if not dropped, it is usually preceeded by the preposition ‘by’.
- The tense of the verb in the passive voice remains the same as in the active voice.
- In the passive voice, third form of the verb is used.
Example:
Everybody drinks water.
Water is drunk by everybody.
They are destroying the jungle.
The jungle is being destroyed.
The structure of Active Voice is:
sub+verb+ object
He eats rice.
The structure of Passive Voice is:
sub (object of active voice)+aux verb+V3+by+agent
Rice is eaten by him.
Note that 'by+agent' is not always used. It is either dropped or some other prepositions are used in place of 'by'.
With some verbs, preposition ‘by’ is not used.
Example:
know = to
surprise = at
annoy = with
contain = in
please = with
frighten = at
line =with
shock = at
interest = in
This book interests me. (Active)
I am interested in this book. (Passive)
He knows me. (Active)
I am known to him. (Passive)
This dog frightened him. (Active)
He was frightened at this dog.(Passive)
'By+agent' is dropped when we give more emphasis to the work done; but not to the doer.
Example:
They are destroying the jungle. (Active)
The jungle is being destroyed. (Passive)
Examples of Passive Voice Sentences:
Simple Present
Active: Rita writes a letter.
Passive: A letter is written by Rita.
Simple Past
Active: Rita wrote a letter.
Passive: A letter was written by Rita.
Present Perfect
Active: Rita has written a letter.
Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.
Simple Future
Active: Rita will write a letter.
Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.
Modal Verb 'can'
Active: Rita can write a letter.
Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.
Present Continuous
Active: Rita is writing a letter.
Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.
Past Continuous
Active: Rita was writing a letter.
Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.
Past Perfect
Active: Rita had written a letter.
Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.
Future Perfect
Active: Rita will have written a letter.
Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita.
Conditional I
Active: Rita would write a letter.
Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.
Conditional II
Active: Rita would have written a letter.
Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.
'Going to' Future Tense
Active: She is going to write a novel.
Passive: A novel is going to be written by her.
Note: We cannot change the sentences of the following four tenses into passive voice:
a. Present Perfect Continuous
b. Past Perfect Continuous
c. Future Continuous
d. Future Perfect Continuous
Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Changing an active voice sentence with two objects into passive voice can be done in two ways. That means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.
Example:
Active: Rita wrote a letter to me.
Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.
or
Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.
Personal and Impersonal Passive
Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.
Example:
Active: They build houses.
Passive: Houses are built.
Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction. Therefore, this passive is called Impersonal Passive.
Example:
Active: He says......
Passive: It is said......
Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g.: say, think, know).
Example:
Active: They say that women live longer than men.
Passive: It is said that women live longer than men.
or
Women are said to live longer than men.
Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.
Example:
Active: They say that women live longer than men.
Passive: Women are said to live longer than men.
The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and 'that' are dropped).
Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.
Active/Passive Voice Rules
Look how tenses and pronouns are changed while changing into passive voice:
Simple Present Tense
V1/V5 = is/am/are + V3
Present Continuous Tense
is/am/are+V4 = is/am/are+being+V3
Present Perfect Tense
has/have+V3 = has/have+ been+V3
Simple Past Tense
V2 = was/were+V3
Past Continuous Tense
was/were+V4 = was/were+being+V3
Past Perfect Tense
had+V3 = had+been+V3
Simple Future Tense
will/shall+V1 = will/shall+be+V3
Future Perfect Tense
will/shall+have+V3=will/shall+have+been+V3
'Going to' Future Tense
is/am/are+going to+V1 = is/am/are+going to+be+V3
Modal Verbs:
would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought to+V1 = would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought to+be+V3
infinitive 'to'+V1 = to be+V3
I, We, He, She, They are changed into me, us, him, her, them preceded by the preposition 'by'
Note:
Take care of singular and plural nature of nouns or pronouns.
Verb/helping verb requires to be adjusted accordingly.
In the interrogative sentences beginning with ‘wh’ words like what, why, when etc, the question word is retained in the beginning of the sentence.
Example:
What does he eat?
What is eaten by him?
An interrogative sentence in the active voice remains an interrogative in the passive form.
Example:
Does he eat rice?
Is rice eaten by him?
An imperative sentence is a sentence showing order or request. So, accordingly, in the passive voice, we say: You are requested/ordered/advised+infinive with ‘to’.
Example:
Please open the door.
You are requested to open the door.
Sentences involving order/advice are preferably changed into passive by using the word ‘let’ or ‘should’.
Example:
Please close the door.
You are requested to close the door.
Save your soul.
Your soul should be saved.
Let your soul be saved.
Do it.
Let it be done.
It should be done.
In some sentences, the subject is understood type. Here the subject has to be supplied according to the context while changing them into active form.
Example:
Passive: The thief was arrested. (by the police)
Active: The police arrested the thief.
Preopositions attached to the verbs in the active form continue to be attached to them even in the passive form.
Example:
Please listen to him.
You are requested to listen to him.
He turned down my proposal.
My proposal was tuned down by him.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive forms. 'I go to school.' Here, 'go' is intransitive verb. So it does not have any passive form.
Quasi Passive Verbs:
The rose smells sweet.
The rose is sweet when (it is) smelt.
Quinine tastes bitter.
Quinine is bitter when (it is) tasted.
A lemon tastes sour.
A lemon is sour when (it is) tasted.
The End
